Bronchoscopy as an investigation or therapeutic procedure demands anaesthesiologist to act accordingly. The present review will take the reader from rigid to fibreoptic flexible bronchoscopy. These procedures are now done as day care procedures in the operation theatre or in critical care units. Advantages and limitations of both rigid and flexible bronchoscopy are analysed. Recently, conscious sedation has come up as the commonly used anaesthetic technique for simple bronchoscopic procedures. However, general anaesthesia still remains a standard technique for more complex procedures. New advances in the field of anaesthesiology such as use of short acting opioids, use of newer drugs such as dexmedetomidine, supraglottic airways and mechanical jet ventilators have facilitated and eased the conduct of the procedure.

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Post-operative pulmonary complications (PPCs) occur in 5–10% of patients undergoing non-thoracic surgery and in 22% of high risk patients. PPCs are broadly defined as conditions affecting the respiratory tract that can adversely influence clinical course of the patient after surgery. Prior risk stratification, risk reduction strategies, performing short duration and/or minimally invasive surgery and use of anaesthetic technique of combined regional with general anaesthesia can reduce the incidence of PPCs. Atelectasis is the main cause of PPCs. Atelectasis can be prevented or treated by adequate analgesia, incentive spirometry (IS), deep breathing exercises, continuous positive airway pressure, mobilisation of secretions and early ambulation. Pre-operative treatment of IS is more effective. The main reason for post-operative pneumonia is aspiration along the channels formed by longitudinal folds in the high volume, low pressure polyvinyl chloride cuffs of the endotracheal tubes. Use of tapered cuff, polyurethane cuffs and selective rather than the routine use of nasogastric tube can decrease chances of aspiration. Acute lung injury is the most serious PPC which may prove fatal.

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Asthma represents one of the most common chronic diseases in children with an increasing incidence reported worldwide. The key to successful anaesthetic outcome involves thorough pre-operative assessment and optimisation of the child's pulmonary status. Judicious application of proper anti-inflammatory and bronchodilatory regimes should be instituted as part of pre-operative preparation. Bronchospasm triggering agents should be carefully probed and meticulously avoided. A calm and properly sedated child at the time of induction is ideal, so also is extubation in a deep plane with an unobstructed airway. Wherever possible, regional anaesthesia should be employed. This will avoid airway manipulations, with additional benefit of excellent peri-operative analgesia. Agents with a potential for histamine release and techniques that can increase airway resistance should be diligently avoided. Emphasis must be given to proper post-operative care including respiratory monitoring, analgesia and breathing exercises.

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Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and bronchial asthma often complicate the surgical patients, leading to post-operative morbidity and mortality. Many authors have tried to predict post-operative pulmonary complications but not specifically in COPD. The aim of this review is to provide recent evidence-based guidelines regarding predictors and ventilatory strategies for mechanical ventilation in COPD and bronchial asthma patients. Using Google search for indexing databases, a search for articles published was performed using various combinations of the following search terms: 'Predictors'; 'mechanical ventilation'; COPD'; 'COPD'; 'bronchial asthma'; 'recent strategies'. Additional sources were also identified by exploring the primary reference list.

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Lung isolation is being used more frequently in both adult and paediatric age groups due to increasing incidence of thoracoscopy and video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery in these patients. Various indications for lung isolation and one-lung ventilation include surgical and non-surgical reasons. Isolation can be achieved by double-lumen endotracheal tubes or bronchial blocker. Different issues arise in prone and semi-prone position. The management of hypoxia with lung isolation is a stepwise drill of adding inhaled oxygen, adding positive end-expiratory pressure to ventilated lung and continuous positive airway pressure to non-ventilated side.

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Pulmonary complications are a major cause of morbidity and mortality in the post-operative period after thoracotomy. The type of complications and the severity of complications depend on the type of thoracic surgery that has been performed as well as on the patient's pre-operative medical status. Risk stratification can help in predicting the possibility of the post-operative complications. Certain airway complications are more prone to develop with thoracic surgery. Vocal cord injuries, bronchopleural fistulae, pulmonary emboli and post-thoracic surgery non-cardiogenic pulmonary oedema are some of the unique complications that occur in this subset of patients. The major pulmonary complications such as atelectasis, bronchospasm and pneumonia can lead to respiratory failure. This review was compiled after a search for search terms within 'post-operative pulmonary complications after thoracic surgery and thoracotomy' on search engines including PubMed and standard text references on the subject from 2000 to 2015.

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Post-operative pulmonary complications (POPC) occur frequently, especially in patients with pre-existing pulmonary disease and have a significant effect on post-surgical morbidity and mortality. By understanding the patient's existing pulmonary diseases that have a significant effect on post-operative morbidities a combination of information has to be gathered from a thorough history and physical exam as well as selected laboratory and diagnostic tests. Evidence based scores can then be employed to predict the risk of significant POPC. Numbers and testing alone, however, such as diagnosis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease based on spirometry, may not provide as clear a picture as of the true risk of POPC that is determined by a combination of estimations of the patient's functional status, (b) measured by the patient's estimates of activity and (c) confirmed by the patient's ability to perform simple tasks such as the 6-minute walk test. This information can then be used to rationalize perioperative interventions and improve the safety of the perioperative experience.

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The anaesthetic management of patients with pre-existing pulmonary disease is a challenging task. It is associated with increased morbidity in the form of post-operative pulmonary complications. Pre-operative optimisation of lung function helps in reducing these complications. Patients are advised to stop smoking for a period of 4–6 weeks. This reduces airway reactivity, improves mucociliary function and decreases carboxy-haemoglobin. The widely used incentive spirometry may be useful only when combined with other respiratory muscle exercises. Volume-based inspiratory devices have the best results. Pharmacotherapy of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease must be optimised before considering the patient for elective surgery. Beta 2 agonists, inhaled corticosteroids and systemic corticosteroids, are the main drugs used for this and several drugs play an adjunctive role in medical therapy. A graded approach has been suggested to manage these patients for elective surgery with an aim to achieve optimal pulmonary function.

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The primary task of the lungs is to maintain oxygenation of the blood and eliminate carbon dioxide through the network of capillaries alongside alveoli. This is maintained by utilising ventilatory reserve capacity and by changes in lung mechanics. Induction of anaesthesia impairs pulmonary functions by the loss of consciousness, depression of reflexes, changes in rib cage and haemodynamics. All drugs used during anaesthesia, including inhalational agents, affect pulmonary functions directly by acting on respiratory system or indirectly through their actions on other systems. Volatile anaesthetic agents have more pronounced effects on pulmonary functions compared to intravenous induction agents, leading to hypercarbia and hypoxia. The posture of the patient also leads to major changes in pulmonary functions. Anticholinergics and neuromuscular blocking agents have little effect. Analgesics and sedatives in combination with volatile anaesthetics and induction agents may exacerbate their effects. Since multiple agents are used during anaesthesia, ultimate effect may be different from when used in isolation. Literature search was done using MeSH key words 'anesthesia', 'pulmonary function', 'respiratory system' and 'anesthesia drugs and lungs' in combination in PubMed, Science Direct and Google Scholar filtered by review and research articles sorted by relevance.

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The chronic obstructive pulmonary disease has become a disease of public health importance. Among the various risk factors, smoking remains the main culprit. In addition to airway obstruction, the presence of intrinsic positive end expiratory pressure, respiratory muscle dysfunction contributes to the symptoms of the patient. Perioperative management of these patients includes identification of modifiable risk factors and their optimisation. Use of regional anaesthesia alone or in combination with general anaesthesia improves pulmonary functions and reduces the incidence of post-operative pulmonary complications.

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Clinical application of anatomical and physiological knowledge of respiratory system improves patient's safety during anaesthesia. It also optimises patient's ventilatory condition and airway patency. Such knowledge has influence on airway management, lung isolation during anaesthesia, management of cases with respiratory disorders, respiratory endoluminal procedures and optimising ventilator strategies in the perioperative period. Understanding of ventilation, perfusion and their relation with each other is important for understanding respiratory physiology. Ventilation to perfusion ratio alters with anaesthesia, body position and with one-lung anaesthesia. Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction, an important safety mechanism, is inhibited by majority of the anaesthetic drugs. Ventilation perfusion mismatch leads to reduced arterial oxygen concentration mainly because of early closure of airway, thus leading to decreased ventilation and atelectasis during anaesthesia. Various anaesthetic drugs alter neuronal control of the breathing and bronchomotor tone.

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